Human Evolution Final Exam (Chpt. 8-12) Notes | Knowt (2024)

1. What is taphonomy?

The study of what happens to an organism remains after death.

2. How does a body become fossilized?

The organism dies; the flesh is eaten away from the bone; sediment covers the bones; erosion exposes the fossil skeleton and footprints.

3. Fill in the table below related to methods for dating fossils. What materials can be used in each dating method, and at what date range they can be applied (how old and how young the materials can be)?

4. Explain how can we use genetics to determine when two species diverged?

Through genetic dating, genetic differences show us the time since the last common ancestor lived based on mutation rates.

5. Explain how we can reconstruct ancient environments, focusing on:

a. Temperature

Through Foraminifera, this is an index of climate based on oxygen-18 isotope.

High oxygen 18= low temperature

Low oxygen 18= high temperature
b. Vegetation (forest/grassland)

The Chemistry of Ancient Remains and Ancient Soils reconstructs ancient diets with carbon.

C3-plant photosynthesis= low carbon-13

- wet-wooded plants and fruit bearing trees

C4- plant photosynthesis= high carbon-13

-grassland plants

6. List the 6 Epochs of the Cenozoic era that correspond to the dates below and what main changes in primate evolution occurred.

a. 66-56 mya Paleocene- primate like mammals (Plesiadapiforms)

b. 56-34 mya Eocene- first true primates (looked like todays prosimians Basal anthropoids)

c. 34-23 mya Oligocene- Fayum primates (more evolved anthropoids) Catarrhines & Platyrrhines separate

d. 23-5.3 mya Miocene- First apes & (later) first hominis

e. 5.3-2.6 mya Pilo- Cercopithecines and colobines separate

f. 2.6-0.012 mya Plei- Cercopithecines and colobines separate

8. Explain the three hypotheses for primate origins

1. Arboreal hypothesis (Smith & Jones):
   adaptations to life in trees
   - forward facing eyes, nails, grasping hands
   - Criticism: squirrels do well in the trees and do not have
   3-D vision or grasping hands (Matt Cartmill, 1970).

2. Visual predation hypothesis (Cartmill): hunting in trees
   – the earliest primates were arboreal hunters  locate and grab insects
   – Criticism: Almost all primates eat mainly fruits (Robert Sussman)

3. Angiosperm radiation hypothesis (Sussman): fruit-eating in the
   trees
   – Angiosperms (flowering plants) had huge radiation at the end of
   the Mesozoic (65 mya) - same time that primate emerged

9. List the traits of the primate fossils below, the places where they were found and which epoch they lived (Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene, Pliocene, Pleistocene, Holocene):

a. Pleasiadapiforms- Paleocene, Asia,

-lack postorbital bar

-Eyes not convergent (not facing forward)

-non-opposing digits

-Claws

-Teeth specialized

-small brain

b. Euprimates (adapids and omomyids)- Eocene, Asia Africa and Europe,

- nails
– Grasping hands/feet
– post-orbital bar
– Forward-facing eyes
– Long and opposing digits
– Generalized teeth
– Larger brain

c. Basal anthropoids- Late Eocene, China and Africa,

-Tarsal bones similar to anthropoids – arboreal
– Teeth anthropoid-like

-Two cusped premolar

d. The Fayum primates (oligopithecids, parapithecids, and propliopithecids)- Oligocene, Africa,

e. Proconsulids- Miocene, Africa,

-Skull and teeth resemble apes (Y-5 molars, honing canines)
– No tail
– Monkeylike body: Front and hindlimbs equal size

10. Where is the most likely position of the primates below in the phylogenetic tree? (e.g between Pan and Hominins, ancestor of Gorilla, etc.)

a. Aegyptopithecus - Precede split between Old World monkeys and apes (25 mya)

b. Khoraptopithecus- the orangutan ancestor (6-9 mya)

c. Victoriapithecus- old world monkeys

d. Adapid- Ancestor of lemurs

e. Carpolestes- closely related to tarsiers than to anthropoids

11. What are the four hypotheses for the appearance of New World Monkeys in America?

1. Rafting or Transoceanic Dispersal Hypothesis

2. Land Bridge Hypothesis

3. North Atlantic land bridge Hypothesis

4. Parallel Evolution hypothesis

Which hypothesis is the most acceptable?

The Land Bridge Hypothesis

12. What apes where found in Europe and in what Epoch?

Dryopithecus- Early Miocene to middle

13. What apes were found in Asia and in what Epoch?

Sivapithecids- Miocene
Khoratpithecus- Miocene

Gigantopithecus- Miocene

14. List 5 morphological traits in the human skeleton that distinguishes bipedal and
quadrupedal locomotion

1. Position of the foramen magnum

2. S-shaped spine and length of the leg

3. Pelvis shorter and broader

4. Valgus knee

5. Longitudinal foot arch

15. Who were the pre-australopithecines? List them in chronological order with dates in mya?

1. S. tchadensis- 6-7 mya

2. O. tugenensis- 6 mya

3. Ar. Kadabba- 5.8-5.2 mya

4. Ar. Ramidus- 4.4 mya

16. List the traits of Ardipithecus and explain how it contributed to our understanding on human evolution.

1. Bipedal

2. Preihonning complex

3. Nonhonning canine

17. Explain three hypotheses for the origins of bipedalism

1. Hunting Hypothesis- hunting for meat led to hominin evolution.

2. Patchy Forest Hypothesis- forest became patchy and separated, two legs energetically more efficient than four.

3. Provisioning Hypothesis – more food supports more infants, which can lower interbirth interval, pair bonding reduces canines, less aggression equals cooperation.

18. List the known species of Australopithecines in each category, and the traits that
distinguish them:

a. Gracile (no crest, face lower on skull, front and back teeth of similar size)

Au. Africanus- small brain, nonhoning canines, long arms, short legs

Au. Sediba- small Brain small teeth, ape like long arms

Au. Afarensis- nonhonning canines, bipedal, small brains

b. Robust (sagittal crest, very large molar teeth, face higher on skull)

Au. Aethiopicus- small brain, sagittal crest, large molars

Au. Boisei- small brain, sagittal crest, large molars

Au. robustus- small brain, nonhoning canines, massive premolars, robust skull with sagittal crest

19. List the differences and similarities between Pre-australopithecines and
australopithecines

Differences- brain size (australopithecines had large brains), dental adaptions (australopithecines had more robust skulls and larger teeth)

Similarities- bipedalism, ape like features, both early hominis

20. List the differences between Australopithecines and hom*o

Australopithecines- smaller brains, large molars, sloping lower face.

hom*o- Large brain, Small back teeth, Low, long, thick skull with small chewing muscles, large brow ridge, long legs, Increased body size, used tools

21. What are the two early hom*o species? List 3 differences between them

hom*o habilis- long arms, smaller legs, larger teeth

hom*o Erectus- larger brain, larger brow ridge, larger body

22. Give the location of the following fossils. How old are they, and in which Epoch did they live?

Fossil Location,Date,Epoch

Lucy- Ethiopia, Africa 3.2 mya Pliocene

Ardi- Ethiopia, Africa 4.4 mya Late Miocene

Australopithecus’ footprints- Laetoli, Tanzania 3.6 mya mid Pilocene

Taung child- Taung, South Africa 2.5-3.5 mya Pleistocene

Peking men- Zhoukoudian, China 780,000 ya mid Pleistocene

23. Explain the two hypotheses for the emergence of modern humans.

1. Out-Africa Theory- States that H. sapiens evolved Africa and then spread to Asia and Europe, replacing those archaic populations, like Neandertals, without any interbreeding at all.

2. Multiregional Evolution Theory- rejects replacement and argues that there was constant gene flow connecting H. erectus through time and that the transition to H. sapiens happened in Africa, Asia, and Europe simultaneously as these populations interbred with one another.

24. List anatomical differences between archaic and modern humans.

1. Cranial capacities

2. Brow Ridge

3. Chin

4. Postcranial skeleton

5. Teeth

6. Overall body size

25. Name 3 tool industries and give the dates of their first appearance in the fossil records, as well as the hominins that used it

1. Mousterian tools- Neandertals, middle Paleolithic

2. Oldowan Stone Tools- Australopithecus, 2.6 mya (Pleistocene)

3. Acheulean tools- hom*o Erectus, 1.4- 250,00 mya (Pleistocene)

26. Describe the body of Neandertals according to Bergman and Allen’s rules

Bergman- have larger body sizes in colder climates.

Allens- have shorter appendages (limbs and ears) in colder climates to reduce heat loss

27. List 3 behavioral traits that were first observed in Neandertals

1. Buried their dead

2. Spoken language

3. Symbols (necklaces, body pigments)